"History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon..."

   Napoleon Bonaparte - 1769-1812

E
egypt

G
greece
greek mythology

I
india
islam

N
near east

R
roman empire

T
timeline

U
united nations

W
worldwar I
worldwar II

 

     egypt
Somewhere around 1375 years before the birth of Christ, an Egyptian pharaoh publicly changed his name. That change signalled a return to long-standing tradition, a hallmark of Egyptian culture that flourished for more than three thousand years peacefully in the rich Nile River valley. The king had been called Tutankhaton. The last portion of his name, aton, was the name for the sun-god, which, in the years before the king's reign, had achieved preeminence among the competing deities in Egyptian religious tradition. The king changed his name to the one by which he is known today, Tutankhamen or, more popularly, King Tut, and ended the brief experiment in monotheism in favor of the older religion with its promise of an afterlife.

And what an afterlife the pharaoh would have! Embalmed in order to endure the elements of disintegration, richly attired to attest to his fabulous earthly wealth, magnificently housed to remind all on-lookers of the towering greatness of the entombed human, the pharaoh lived on in perpetual association with the stone structures that rose portentously out of the hot, barren sands of the desert so close to the life-giving, greening Nile. And the solemn bearing of these great structures reminds people today of the human hope for immortality and the way an entire culture fashioned a collective immortality in astonishing stone. Here was a culture that would persist, just as its pharaohs would live on in their silent palaces.

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More interesting, perhaps, is the collective underwriting of the pyramids. No fewer than 70,000 workers would have been needed to lug limestone blocks from desert miles away to the building sites. Yet there is little evidence that the pharaohs had to coerce their subjects to leave their fields and families in order to build a monument whose completion any single worker would certainly never see. In this way, the pharaohs showed that they knew their people: all people apparently willingly participated in the pageant of immortality made real. With no hope of a berth for themselves in the tomb, the workers nonetheless must have taken comfort from knowing that their king, their earthly representative, would live on for them in perpetuity. The Egyptian hoi polloi became immortal by proxy.

     greece
There will always be critics. Even when things are going pretty well, when the government is relatively stable, when more people than ever are living well, when the future looks promising, even at these times, there are those whose need to speak out overcomes their mute acceptance of the status quo. Plato's description of Socrates shows the grizzled sage to be one such critic.

Socrates is typically Greek in his relentless questioning, of himself, of authorities, of accepted traditions and practices. And Socrates' questioning displays another characteristic associated with the Greeks, a belief in the capacity of the mind (rationality) to apprehend the universe and a concomitant belief in the power of language to come to terms with that understanding.

Not all Greek critics chose Socrates' direct approach. Aristophanes' play Lysistrata hilariously lambastes war-mongers. Despite its playful ribaldry, Lysistrata was written at a time of great duress, when the welfare of the fragile Athenian city-state was threatened from hostile forces both inside and out. Yet, the play's parody displays its profound critique of contemporary society.

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Likewise, Sophocles' play Antigone is an outspoken critique of absolute power and unenlightened rule. The play details the disasters that befall a society in the midst of change, when long-accepted traditions conflict with interests of a new era.

That all people should be morally accountable for their actions is characteristic of Greek thought. For this reason, Socrates insists on accepting the punishment his fellow Athenians have meted out to him. Socrates is, to the end, a believer in democracy and the will of the majority despite his grievous doubts about honest self-questioning on the part of his fellow citizens. His friend Crito makes convincing arguments for Socrates' escape, yet the sage remains clear-thinking, hard-headed, and true to his moral principles: he accepts the sentence that has been given him. These three criteria well describe the Greeks.

     india
It is not surprising that thinkers as diverse as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Mahatma Gandhi have found inspiration in The Bhagavad Gita, the great Hindu religious poem. At first glance, this statement must seem odd to you: after all, The Bhagavad Gita describes a momentary surcease in a vast battle in which brothers fight brothers in bloody, historical technicolor. The principal character, Arjuna, sits in a chariot in the midst of the mass of soldiers who wait, surprisingly patiently, as Arjuna looks into his conscience and questions his divine charioteer, Krishna. Krishna's temporary job as charioteer is by no means accidental: this moment before the heat and horror of battle was chosen as precisely the right time to reflect on the nature of duty and devotion. The Bhagavad Gita, then, becomes a record of Arjuna's questions and Krishna's provocative responses.

You might ask: What does this single work, a strangely didactic addition to the epic Mahabharata, say about ancient India? What does this work say about modern India? Can a reading of The Bhagavad Gita help us today to recreate life in Indian societies some 25 centuries ago? Can a reading of The Bhagavad Gita disclose elements of Indian life?

It is doubtful that Emerson read The Bhagavad Gita as a guide to the world of the Hindoos (as he would have spelled it). It is doubtful that he felt he knew India as a result of his reading, much as people (foolishly?) feel they know a country by reading a travel and tourism guide to that nation. Instead, Emerson responded to the great concepts and questions that The Bhagavad Gita explores: the notion that an individual human life is but part of a greater reality of which humans, likewise, are a part; the notion of the transitory nature of suffering and pain (not to mention pleasure); the valorizing of the spiritual, not the material, part of human nature.

It is this last point that, perhaps, is most interesting, the Hindu denial of the self-existence of the natural world. To people in a culture that values obvious trappings of wealth and visible emblems of material success, an acknowledgement of such a proposition can only come as frightful recognition of the tawdry emptiness of life in contemporary industrialized societies. Hinduism provides a lasting critique of Western acquisitiveness.

     islam
Let's counter one of the precepts set up in the introductory comments and consider what makes Islam like Judaism and Christianity. For Americans make much of the purported differences as we carelessly cast Muslim leaders as fanatics or terrorists and justify bombing their nations. These perceived differences reinforce and perpetuate stereotypes, whose influences are pervasive and dangerous, as Edward Said points out in his book Orientalism.

In the first place, Islam is an unflinchingly monotheistic faith. Even the readily-accepted notion that God could have a son (Christ) runs counter to this explicit monotheism. Like the Hebrew god, Allah is invisible, without material form; Allah is omnipotent, wrathful on occasion, yet eternally merciful. Like the God of the Genesis account, Allah has created the natural world and endowed humans with life among a world of divinely-created things. This human creature is regarded as free and individual; and the belief that individuality is good is shared among the Semitic faiths. The religions concur too on the presence and the nature of the soul, which lives on after the body has perished. The Koran describes both heaven and hell and forewarns that a Last Judgement will come when each person shall be judged for his or her deeds.

Muslims trace their lineage back through the Hebrew Scriptures to Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, Abraham's second wife. Later, as the story goes, Abraham's first wife Sarah conceived a son, whose name became Isaac. Isaac was the chosen one, while Ishmael and his mother were banished to the South and began their lives anew close to what is now the city of Mecca. Hundreds of years later, a child called Mohammed was born in the desert; he was a descendant of the Hebrew Ishmael.

     near east
From the Near East comes the Old Babylonian account of the life and death of Gilgamesh. There was a real Gilgamesh, a king who ruled some 2700 years before Christ lived and the Romans consolidated their vast empire. The character and the exploits of this king were preserved in the form of stories that circulated for many years after the king's death. Some of these tales, more than 600 years after Gilgamesh's rule, were collected by a story teller and were put down in the form of an epic poem. This poem is what we know today as The Epic of Gilgamesh.

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Who knows how many versions The Epic of Gilgamesh went through before consolidation in its written form? Who knows how many translations the stories underwent before their reworking in the Babylonian language? Who knows how many parts of the story might have offended or misrepresented the eponymous king? Who knows how many story-tellers made more (or less) of Mashu, the mountainous gateway to the other world, as they kept their audiences spellbound with fantastical details of this greatest of human adventures, the struggle to find (and retain) eternal life?

What is known is no less intriguing. How curious is the parallel between the story of Utnapishtim and the Hebrew account of Noah. How symbolic is the description of Enkidu, the prototypical natural man, as he sheds his animalistic behaviors in preference for the pleasures of human society. How extraordinary is the description of the snake, whose stealing of the essence of immortality from Gilgamesh results in the snake's rebirth each time it sheds its skin.

Of course the Hebrew iteration of the Flood story is not coincidence. For a time, the Hebrews lived in Wumer, home to Abraham's people. Nomadic people, they left the fertile river valleys and headed for Canaan and later Egypt, taking with them ancient accounts of floods and righteous people whose obedience and wisdom helped them to survive the consuming waters.

Nor is the function of the snake coincidental either. The Hebrews find the powerful, mysterious serpent in their creation story and the Garden of Eden, which surely was located in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley, not the dry vistas of Canaan or the arid Sinai peninsula. But while, for the Sumerians, the snake is merely deceitful and clever, the snake becomes the symbol of creeping evil for the Hebrews.

     roman empire
The art and artifacts from the Karanis excavation provide a useful, summary statement about the culture of Rome, the great imperial city.

Rome's greatness grew out of its imperial program of conquering others and establishing colonies. This military expansion at once brought great material benefit to the Roman state and guaranteed a pipeline of wealth for Rome, the imperial city. And Rome becomes a cosmopolitan capital where high-living and material wealth become synonymous with personal importance and success. Note how the Karanis exhibit displays extravagant wall paintings, which did not decorate the walls of churches or temples but rather the homes of wealthy citizens. The exhibit also includes coins, whose minting bespeaks the abiding concern for the tokens of wealth as well.

What the Romans also did was learn from other cultures. You might wonder why Aphrodite, a Greek goddess, was memorialized in a fantastic sculpture in Roman times (and in Egypt, no less!). To their credit, the Romans recognized the richness of Greek art and architecture, and they sought to emulate the Greek masters, and the Greek styles and themes, in their own art. To a large degree, it was the Romans who brought Greek (and Hellenistic) culture to world attention. Romans patronized Greek artists and artisans in the glorification of a vast world of their own, Roman creation.

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It is no surprise, then, that the Roman poet Virgil turns to Greek mythology and to the Greek epics as he fashions his own description of the origins and destiny of the Roman state, The Aeneid. Virgil writes his extended poem, in part, to win the favor of Augustus Caesar, the new emperor who emerges from the conflict surrounding the death of Julius Caesar. His other aim is to situate Rome in line with what was considered the great literary tradition of the time, the Greek. Virgil's work thus is both polemic and propaganda: his blending of history and mythology provides a platform for the imperial agenda that Augustus will undertake.

     world war I
Also called the Great War. All major powers of Europe were involved in the conflict. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary declared war against France and Russia. The United Kingdom was also involved, after Germany attacked the neutral Belgium. In 1917 revolution breaked out in Russia, and the United States of America were involved as well. The war ended in 1918, and a year later, in 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was formed, which had to bring peace in the world. However, this treaty would be the most important reason for the outbreak of the second world war.

     world war II
In 1933 Adolf Hitler became the Führer of Nazi-Germany. After a few years he invated Czechoslovakia, and in 1939, Poland is invated. France and the United Kingdom declare war against the Third Reich. Germany conquered Europe, and only the United Kingdom isn't invated by the Reich. In 1941, Germany attackes the Soviet-Union, but failes in conquering Moscow. The Soviet Red Army holds against the Nazi army, and launches an attack deep into Europe.

At the other side of the world, Japan attacked the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, and the USA declares war against Germany and Japan. After six years of war, freedom is restored with the defeat of both Germany and Japan. Over 55 million people are killed, including 30 million civilians. In less than a decade two worldpowers, the German Third Reich and the Empire of Japan, rised and disappeared. A new period in time begins, in which almost the intire world is ruled from Washington and Moscow. The old colonial imperiams of the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and France collapsed slowely.

     united nations
The name United Nations, coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was first used in the 'Declaration by United Nations' of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.

States first established international organizations to cooperate on specific matters. The International Telecommunication Union was founded in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, and the Universal Postal Union was established in 1874. Both are now United Nations specialized agencies.

In 1899, the International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate instruments for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare. It adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began work in 1902.

The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an organization conceived in similar circumstances during the first World War, and established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles "to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security." The International Labour Organization was also created under the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League. The League of Nations ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second World War.

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In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on International Organization to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States in August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.

The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October each year.

timeline
Bellow a timeline of the different civilizations.
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3300 BC	Sumerian civilization in minor Asia.
2800 BC	Old Kingdoms in Egypt.
2600 BC	Harappa period in India.
2600 BC	Minoan civilizations in Crete.
2500 BC	Early and Middle Helladic Epochs.
2300 BC	Akkadian Empire in minor Asia.
2000 BC	Hsia Empire in China.
2000 BC	Middle Kingdom in Egypt.
1600 BC	Assyria Babylonia in minor Asia.
1600 BC	New Kingdom in Egypt.
1500 BC	Mycenean civilization in Greece.
1500 BC	Shang Empire in China.
900 BC	Growth of Greek city states.
700 BC	Egypt ruled by Nubia.
600 BC	Babylonia in minor Asia.
500 BC	Egypt becomes part of the Persian Empire.
500 BC	The Persian Empire conquers many regions in minor Asia.
500 BC	The Athenean Empire grows in power.
500 BC	The Roman Republic is founded.
300 BC -	Greek Hellenism, greek culture is spread to the Middle-East by Alexander the Great.
100 BC	The Han Empire in China is founded.
0	Around this time the Roman Empire is founded by Emperor Augustus.
200 AD	Early Maya period in South America.
300 AD	Emperor Constantine adopts Christianity.
400 AD	The Roman Empire in the west starts to collapse.
400 AD	East Roman Empire established in Constantinopel.
400 AD	The Gupta Empire is established in India.
500 AD	Buddhisme is introduced in Japan.
500 AD	The Maya Old Empire.
600 AD	The East Roman Empire is renamed into the Byzantine Empire.
800 AD	The Frankish Kingdom is established.
1000 AD	The time of the Holy Roman Emperors.
1200 AD	The Inca's and the Aztecs.
1300 AD	The Habsburg Empire is established.
1500 AD	The Ming Dynasty rules over China.
1450 AD -	The Ottomans take Constantinople. The end of the Byzantine Empire, and the end of the Middle-Ages.
1500 AD	The Ottoman Empire grows in power.
1500 AD	America is discovered by Columbus.
1700 AD -	The Spanish Colonial Empire. Civilizations of the Inca's, Aztecs and Maya's are destroyed.
1700 AD	The Romanov Dynasty rules over Russia.
1800 AD	The French and America Revolutions. Both become an independent republic.
1900 AD	The Industrial Revolution. The British Kingdom rules many colonies.
1900 AD	The First World War and the Russian Revolution.
1950 AD	The Second World War. The Peoples Republic of China is founded.
1950 AD	The United Nations is founded.
2000 AD	The European Union is established.