"History is the version of past events
that people have decided to agree upon..."
Napoleon Bonaparte - 1769-1812
E
egypt
G
greece
greek mythology
I
india
islam
N
near east
R
roman empire
T
timeline
U
united nations
W
worldwar I
worldwar II
egypt
Somewhere
around 1375 years before the birth of Christ, an Egyptian
pharaoh publicly changed his name. That change signalled a
return to long-standing tradition, a hallmark of Egyptian
culture that flourished for more than three thousand years
peacefully in the rich Nile River valley. The king had been
called Tutankhaton. The last portion of his name, aton, was
the name for the sun-god, which, in the years before the
king's reign, had achieved preeminence among the competing
deities in Egyptian religious tradition. The king changed his
name to the one by which he is known today, Tutankhamen or,
more popularly, King Tut, and ended the brief experiment in
monotheism in favor of the older religion with its promise of
an afterlife.
And what an
afterlife the pharaoh would have! Embalmed in order to endure
the elements of disintegration, richly attired to attest to
his fabulous earthly wealth, magnificently housed to remind
all on-lookers of the towering greatness of the entombed
human, the pharaoh lived on in perpetual association with the
stone structures that rose portentously out of the hot, barren
sands of the desert so close to the life-giving, greening
Nile. And the solemn bearing of these great structures reminds
people today of the human hope for immortality and the way an
entire culture fashioned a collective immortality in
astonishing stone. Here was a culture that would persist, just
as its pharaohs would live on in their silent palaces.
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More
interesting, perhaps, is the collective underwriting of the
pyramids. No fewer than 70,000 workers would have been needed
to lug limestone blocks from desert miles away to the building
sites. Yet there is little evidence that the pharaohs had to
coerce their subjects to leave their fields and families in
order to build a monument whose completion any single worker
would certainly never see. In this way, the pharaohs showed
that they knew their people: all people apparently willingly
participated in the pageant of immortality made real. With no
hope of a berth for themselves in the tomb, the workers
nonetheless must have taken comfort from knowing that their
king, their earthly representative, would live on for them in
perpetuity. The Egyptian hoi polloi became immortal by proxy.
greece
There
will always be critics. Even when things are going pretty
well, when the government is relatively stable, when more
people than ever are living well, when the future looks
promising, even at these times, there are those whose need to
speak out overcomes their mute acceptance of the status quo.
Plato's description of Socrates shows the grizzled sage to be
one such critic.
Socrates is
typically Greek in his relentless questioning, of himself, of
authorities, of accepted traditions and practices. And
Socrates' questioning displays another characteristic
associated with the Greeks, a belief in the capacity of the
mind (rationality) to apprehend the universe and a concomitant
belief in the power of language to come to terms with that
understanding.
Not all Greek
critics chose Socrates' direct approach. Aristophanes' play
Lysistrata hilariously lambastes war-mongers. Despite its
playful ribaldry, Lysistrata was written at a time of great
duress, when the welfare of the fragile Athenian city-state
was threatened from hostile forces both inside and out. Yet,
the play's parody displays its profound critique of
contemporary society.
----------
Likewise,
Sophocles' play Antigone is an outspoken critique of absolute
power and unenlightened rule. The play details the disasters
that befall a society in the midst of change, when
long-accepted traditions conflict with interests of a new era.
That all
people should be morally accountable for their actions is
characteristic of Greek thought. For this reason, Socrates
insists on accepting the punishment his fellow Athenians have
meted out to him. Socrates is, to the end, a believer in
democracy and the will of the majority despite his grievous
doubts about honest self-questioning on the part of his fellow
citizens. His friend Crito makes convincing arguments for
Socrates' escape, yet the sage remains clear-thinking,
hard-headed, and true to his moral principles: he accepts the
sentence that has been given him. These three criteria well
describe the Greeks.
india
It is not
surprising that thinkers as diverse as Ralph Waldo Emerson and
Mahatma Gandhi have found inspiration in The Bhagavad Gita,
the great Hindu religious poem. At first glance, this
statement must seem odd to you: after all, The Bhagavad Gita
describes a momentary surcease in a vast battle in which
brothers fight brothers in bloody, historical technicolor. The
principal character, Arjuna, sits in a chariot in the midst of
the mass of soldiers who wait, surprisingly patiently, as
Arjuna looks into his conscience and questions his divine
charioteer, Krishna. Krishna's temporary job as charioteer is
by no means accidental: this moment before the heat and horror
of battle was chosen as precisely the right time to reflect on
the nature of duty and devotion. The Bhagavad Gita, then,
becomes a record of Arjuna's questions and Krishna's
provocative responses.
You might
ask: What does this single work, a strangely didactic addition
to the epic Mahabharata, say about ancient India? What does
this work say about modern India? Can a reading of The
Bhagavad Gita help us today to recreate life in Indian
societies some 25 centuries ago? Can a reading of The Bhagavad
Gita disclose elements of Indian life?
It is
doubtful that Emerson read The Bhagavad Gita as a guide to the
world of the Hindoos (as he would have spelled it). It is
doubtful that he felt he knew India as a result of his
reading, much as people (foolishly?) feel they know a country
by reading a travel and tourism guide to that nation. Instead,
Emerson responded to the great concepts and questions that The
Bhagavad Gita explores: the notion that an individual human
life is but part of a greater reality of which humans,
likewise, are a part; the notion of the transitory nature of
suffering and pain (not to mention pleasure); the valorizing
of the spiritual, not the material, part of human nature.
It is this
last point that, perhaps, is most interesting, the Hindu
denial of the self-existence of the natural world. To people
in a culture that values obvious trappings of wealth and
visible emblems of material success, an acknowledgement of
such a proposition can only come as frightful recognition of
the tawdry emptiness of life in contemporary industrialized
societies. Hinduism provides a lasting critique of Western
acquisitiveness.
islam
Let's
counter one of the precepts set up in the introductory
comments and consider what makes Islam like Judaism and
Christianity. For Americans make much of the purported
differences as we carelessly cast Muslim leaders as fanatics
or terrorists and justify bombing their nations. These
perceived differences reinforce and perpetuate stereotypes,
whose influences are pervasive and dangerous, as Edward Said
points out in his book Orientalism.
In the first
place, Islam is an unflinchingly monotheistic faith. Even the
readily-accepted notion that God could have a son (Christ)
runs counter to this explicit monotheism. Like the Hebrew god,
Allah is invisible, without material form; Allah is
omnipotent, wrathful on occasion, yet eternally merciful. Like
the God of the Genesis account, Allah has created the natural
world and endowed humans with life among a world of
divinely-created things. This human creature is regarded as
free and individual; and the belief that individuality is good
is shared among the Semitic faiths. The religions concur too
on the presence and the nature of the soul, which lives on
after the body has perished. The Koran describes both heaven
and hell and forewarns that a Last Judgement will come when
each person shall be judged for his or her deeds.
Muslims trace
their lineage back through the Hebrew Scriptures to Ishmael,
the son of Abraham and Hagar, Abraham's second wife. Later, as
the story goes, Abraham's first wife Sarah conceived a son,
whose name became Isaac. Isaac was the chosen one, while
Ishmael and his mother were banished to the South and began
their lives anew close to what is now the city of Mecca.
Hundreds of years later, a child called Mohammed was born in
the desert; he was a descendant of the Hebrew Ishmael.
near east
From the
Near East comes the Old Babylonian account of the life and
death of Gilgamesh. There was a real Gilgamesh, a king who
ruled some 2700 years before Christ lived and the Romans
consolidated their vast empire. The character and the exploits
of this king were preserved in the form of stories that
circulated for many years after the king's death. Some of
these tales, more than 600 years after Gilgamesh's rule, were
collected by a story teller and were put down in the form of
an epic poem. This poem is what we know today as The Epic of
Gilgamesh.
----------
Who knows how
many versions The Epic of Gilgamesh went through before
consolidation in its written form? Who knows how many
translations the stories underwent before their reworking in
the Babylonian language? Who knows how many parts of the story
might have offended or misrepresented the eponymous king? Who
knows how many story-tellers made more (or less) of Mashu, the
mountainous gateway to the other world, as they kept their
audiences spellbound with fantastical details of this greatest
of human adventures, the struggle to find (and retain) eternal
life?
What is known
is no less intriguing. How curious is the parallel between the
story of Utnapishtim and the Hebrew account of Noah. How
symbolic is the description of Enkidu, the prototypical
natural man, as he sheds his animalistic behaviors in
preference for the pleasures of human society. How
extraordinary is the description of the snake, whose stealing
of the essence of immortality from Gilgamesh results in the
snake's rebirth each time it sheds its skin.
Of course the
Hebrew iteration of the Flood story is not coincidence. For a
time, the Hebrews lived in Wumer, home to Abraham's people.
Nomadic people, they left the fertile river valleys and headed
for Canaan and later Egypt, taking with them ancient accounts
of floods and righteous people whose obedience and wisdom
helped them to survive the consuming waters.
Nor is the
function of the snake coincidental either. The Hebrews find
the powerful, mysterious serpent in their creation story and
the Garden of Eden, which surely was located in the
Tigris-Euphrates river valley, not the dry vistas of Canaan or
the arid Sinai peninsula. But while, for the Sumerians, the
snake is merely deceitful and clever, the snake becomes the
symbol of creeping evil for the Hebrews.
roman empire
The art
and artifacts from the Karanis excavation provide a useful,
summary statement about the culture of Rome, the great
imperial city.
Rome's
greatness grew out of its imperial program of conquering
others and establishing colonies. This military expansion at
once brought great material benefit to the Roman state and
guaranteed a pipeline of wealth for Rome, the imperial city.
And Rome becomes a cosmopolitan capital where high-living and
material wealth become synonymous with personal importance and
success. Note how the Karanis exhibit displays extravagant
wall paintings, which did not decorate the walls of churches
or temples but rather the homes of wealthy citizens. The
exhibit also includes coins, whose minting bespeaks the
abiding concern for the tokens of wealth as well.
What the
Romans also did was learn from other cultures. You might
wonder why Aphrodite, a Greek goddess, was memorialized in a
fantastic sculpture in Roman times (and in Egypt, no less!).
To their credit, the Romans recognized the richness of Greek
art and architecture, and they sought to emulate the Greek
masters, and the Greek styles and themes, in their own art. To
a large degree, it was the Romans who brought Greek (and
Hellenistic) culture to world attention. Romans patronized
Greek artists and artisans in the glorification of a vast
world of their own, Roman creation.
----------
It is no
surprise, then, that the Roman poet Virgil turns to Greek
mythology and to the Greek epics as he fashions his own
description of the origins and destiny of the Roman state, The
Aeneid. Virgil writes his extended poem, in part, to win the
favor of Augustus Caesar, the new emperor who emerges from the
conflict surrounding the death of Julius Caesar. His other aim
is to situate Rome in line with what was considered the great
literary tradition of the time, the Greek. Virgil's work thus
is both polemic and propaganda: his blending of history and
mythology provides a platform for the imperial agenda that
Augustus will undertake.
world war I
Also
called the Great War. All major powers of Europe were involved
in the conflict. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary
declared war against France and Russia. The United Kingdom was
also involved, after Germany attacked the neutral Belgium. In
1917 revolution breaked out in Russia, and the United States
of America were involved as well. The war ended in 1918, and a
year later, in 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was formed,
which had to bring peace in the world. However, this treaty
would be the most important reason for the outbreak of the
second world war.
world war
II
In 1933
Adolf Hitler became the Führer of Nazi-Germany. After a few
years he invated Czechoslovakia, and in 1939, Poland is
invated. France and the United Kingdom declare war against the
Third Reich. Germany conquered Europe, and only the United
Kingdom isn't invated by the Reich. In 1941, Germany attackes
the Soviet-Union, but failes in conquering Moscow. The Soviet
Red Army holds against the Nazi army, and launches an attack
deep into Europe.
At the other
side of the world, Japan attacked the American fleet in Pearl
Harbor, and the USA declares war against Germany and Japan.
After six years of war, freedom is restored with the defeat of
both Germany and Japan. Over 55 million people are killed,
including 30 million civilians. In less than a decade two
worldpowers, the German Third Reich and the Empire of Japan,
rised and disappeared. A new period in time begins, in which
almost the intire world is ruled from Washington and Moscow.
The old colonial imperiams of the United Kingdom, the Kingdom
of the Netherlands and France collapsed slowely.
united
nations
The name
United Nations, coined by United States President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, was first used in the 'Declaration by United
Nations' of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War, when
representatives of 26 nations pledged their governments to
continue fighting together against the Axis Powers.
States first
established international organizations to cooperate on
specific matters. The International Telecommunication Union
was founded in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, and
the Universal Postal Union was established in 1874. Both are
now United Nations specialized agencies.
In 1899, the
International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to
elaborate instruments for settling crises peacefully,
preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare. It adopted the
Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
which began work in 1902.
The
forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations, an
organization conceived in similar circumstances during the
first World War, and established in 1919 under the Treaty of
Versailles "to promote international cooperation and to
achieve peace and security." The International Labour
Organization was also created under the Treaty of Versailles
as an affiliated agency of the League. The League of Nations
ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second
World War.
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In 1945,
representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the
United Nations Conference on International Organization to
draw up the United Nations Charter. Those delegates
deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the
representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom
and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, United States in
August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by
the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not
represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one
of the original 51 Member States.
The United
Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,
when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the
Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a
majority of other signatories. United Nations Day is
celebrated on 24 October each year.
timeline
Bellow a
timeline of the different civilizations.
-
3300 BC |
Sumerian civilization in minor Asia. |
2800 BC |
Old Kingdoms in Egypt. |
2600 BC |
Harappa period in India. |
2600 BC |
Minoan civilizations in Crete. |
2500 BC |
Early and Middle Helladic Epochs. |
2300 BC |
Akkadian Empire in minor Asia. |
2000 BC |
Hsia Empire in China. |
2000 BC |
Middle Kingdom in Egypt. |
1600 BC |
Assyria Babylonia in minor Asia. |
1600 BC |
New Kingdom in Egypt. |
1500 BC |
Mycenean civilization in Greece. |
1500 BC |
Shang Empire in China. |
900 BC |
Growth of Greek city states. |
700 BC |
Egypt ruled by Nubia. |
600 BC |
Babylonia in minor Asia. |
500 BC |
Egypt becomes part of the Persian Empire. |
500 BC |
The Persian Empire conquers many regions in
minor Asia. |
500 BC |
The Athenean Empire grows in power. |
500 BC |
The Roman Republic is founded. |
300 BC
- |
Greek Hellenism, greek culture is spread to
the Middle-East by Alexander the Great. |
100 BC |
The Han Empire in China is founded. |
0 |
Around this time the Roman Empire is
founded by Emperor Augustus. |
200 AD |
Early Maya period in South America. |
300 AD |
Emperor Constantine adopts Christianity. |
400 AD |
The Roman Empire in the west starts to
collapse. |
400 AD |
East Roman Empire established in
Constantinopel. |
400 AD |
The Gupta Empire is established in India. |
500 AD |
Buddhisme is introduced in Japan. |
500 AD |
The Maya Old Empire. |
600 AD |
The East Roman Empire is renamed into the
Byzantine Empire. |
800 AD |
The Frankish Kingdom is established. |
1000 AD |
The time of the Holy Roman Emperors. |
1200 AD |
The Inca's and the Aztecs. |
1300 AD |
The Habsburg Empire is established. |
1500 AD |
The Ming Dynasty rules over China. |
1450 AD
- |
The Ottomans take Constantinople. The end
of the Byzantine Empire, and the end of the Middle-Ages. |
1500 AD |
The Ottoman Empire grows in power. |
1500 AD |
America is discovered by Columbus. |
1700 AD
- |
The Spanish Colonial Empire. Civilizations
of the Inca's, Aztecs and Maya's are destroyed. |
1700 AD |
The Romanov Dynasty rules over Russia. |
1800 AD |
The French and America Revolutions. Both
become an independent republic. |
1900 AD |
The Industrial Revolution. The British
Kingdom rules many colonies. |
1900 AD |
The First World War and the Russian
Revolution. |
1950 AD |
The Second World War. The Peoples Republic
of China is founded. |
1950 AD |
The United Nations is founded. |
2000 AD |
The European Union is established. |